ABSTRACT Introduction: Asthma is one of the most costly diseases for the national health system, due to the substantial resources required for its treatment and prevention. Objective: To describe the costs of asthma, both direct and indirect, nationally and internationally. Development: A bibliographic review was carried out at national and international level, in order to know the magnitude of the economic resources required for the control of this disease. The national and international data presented, both in economic terms and in epidemiological aspects, clearly indicated that asthma has a considerable socioeconomic effect on public health in different countries, since most of the total cost of asthma is derived from poor control of the disease, expressed both in indirect costs, as well as an important part of the direct costs that comprised expenses for hospitalization, visits to medical emergencies, etc. Conclusions: It is essential to have the necessary knowledge about the economic aspects of asthma, because of the importance of the costs of medical care for health institutions, the implications of the expenses for the patient himself and the families, as well as the indirect costs due to the loss of labor productivity of people afflicted with this disease.

RESUMEN Introducción: El asma es una de las enfermedades más costosas para el sistema sanitario nacional, debido a los cuantiosos recursos requeridos para su tratamiento y prevención. Objetivo: Describir los costos del asma, tanto directos como indirectos, en el ámbito nacional e internacional. Desarrollo: Se realizó una revisión bibliográfica en el ámbito nacional e internacional, para conocer la magnitud de los recursos económicos necesarios para el control de esta enfermedad. Los datos nacionales e internacionales expuestos, tanto en términos económicos como en los aspectos epidemiológicos, indicaron claramente que el asma tiene un efecto socioeconómico considerable sobre la salud pública en distintos países, ya que la mayor parte del costo total del asma se derivan del mal control de la enfermedad, expresados tanto en costos indirectos, así como una parte importante de los costos directos que comprendió los gastos por hospitalización, visitas a urgencias médicas, etc. Conclusiones: Es imprescindible tener el conocimiento necesario sobre los aspectos económicos del asma, por la importancia que tienen los costos de la atención médica para las instituciones de salud, las implicaciones que presentan los gastos para el propio paciente y las familias, así como por los costos indirectos debido a la pérdida de la productividad laboral de las personas aquejados de esta enfermedad.

ABSTRACT Introduction: Diabetes is a serious and chronic condition that occurs when a person's blood glucose levels are high because the body cannot produce insulin or its amount is insufficient. It is an important and independent risk factor for cardiovascular diseases and other damages. Objective: To describe the prevalence and mortality from diabetes in Cuba during the decade 2010-2019. Material and Methods: A descriptive ecological study on diabetes in Cuba was carried out. Dispensarization and gross mortality rates due to the disease in the 2010-2019 decade were taken into account. The statistical yearbooks published by the Directorate of Medical Records and Health Statistics of the Ministry of Public Health those years were used as a source of information. Results: The prevalence of diabetes in Cuba in the decade tended to increase from 4,04 % in 2010, to 6,67 % in 2019. It was more frequent in women. Crude mortality rates decreased in that period from 23,9 to 20,6 per 100 000 inhabitants. Conclusions: The annual prevalence rates of diabetes reported in Cuba were higher in females. In the decade, the general prevalence of diabetes showed an increase, while the trend in gross mortality from this disease was related to the decrease. Women were more likely to die than men.

RESUMEN Introducción: La diabetes mellitus es una afección grave y crónica que ocurre cuando los niveles de glucosa en la sangre de una persona son altos, porque su cuerpo no puede producir insulina o su cantidad es insuficiente. Constituye un importante e independiente factor de riesgo, para las enfermedades cardiovasculares y otros daños. Objetivo: Describir la prevalencia y mortalidad por diabetes en Cuba, en el decenio 2010- 2019. Material y métodos: Se realizó un estudio ecológico, descriptivo, sobre la diabetes mellitus en Cuba. Se tuvieron en cuenta, la dispensarización, las tasas de mortalidad brutas por la enfermedad, en el decenio 2010- 2019. Los anuarios estadísticos publicados por la Dirección de Registros Médicos y Estadísticas de Salud, del Ministerio de Salud Pública de esos años, fueron la fuente de información. Resultados: La prevalencia de diabetes en Cuba en el decenio, ha tenido tendencia al incremento de 4,04 % en 2010, a 6,67 % en 2019. Fue más frecuente en las personas del sexo femenino. Las tasas brutas de mortalidad, disminuyeron en ese período de 23,9 a 20,6 por 100 000 habitantes. Conclusiones: Las tasas de prevalencia anuales de diabetes reportadas en Cuba, resultaron mayores en el sexo femenino. En el decenio, la prevalencia general de diabetes mostró un incremento, en tanto que la tendencia de la mortalidad bruta por esta enfermedad, fue al descenso. Murieron más mujeres que hombres.

ABSTRACT Introduction: New SARS-CoV-2 strains recently detected cause an increase in morbidity and mortality not only in the elderly. Identifying the vulnerable population is a challenge. Objective: To estimate the prevalence of adults vulnerable to severe COVID-19 and its associated sociodemographic factors. Methods: An observational cross-sectional analytic study using data from the 2018-2020 National Health Survey. It included 13 684 individuals aged 19 years and over. The structured questionnaire included information on the sociodemographic variables, personal and family pathological antecedents, and records of blood pressure and biochemistry tests, among others. Vulnerability to severe COVID-19 was developed based on the proposal from the CDC Atlanta, USA and it was the dependable variable. Results: The prevalence of adults vulnerable to severe COVID-19 in the country was 68.3%. At higher risk are the elderly (86.5%), non-white individuals, and those who perceived themselves as having poor living conditions. For the elderly, being male was a protective factor, while living in the western region of the country was a risk factor. High blood pressure (39.4%), smoking (22.2%), obesity (16.6%) and chronic respiratory diseases (10.6%) were the most frequent health problems. Conclusions: Vulnerability to severe COVID-19 in the Cuban adult population is high; consequently, it is considered a serious health problem. Non-modifiable factors are positively associated with vulnerability: being an older adult, female, non-white skin color, and suffering from hypertension; while “poor” living conditions is the only modifiable factor.

RESUMEN Introducción: Nuevas cepas de SARS-CoV-2 detectadas recientemente provocan aumento de la morbilidad y mortalidad no solo en adultos mayores. Conocer la población vulnerable es un reto. Objetivo: Estimar la prevalencia de adultos vulnerables a la COVID-19 severa y sus factores sociodemográficos asociados. Métodos: Estudio observacional transversal analítico con datos provenientes de la encuesta nacional de salud 2018-2020, que incluye 13 684 personas de 19 y más años de edad. El cuestionario estructurado provee la información de variables sociodemográficas, antecedentes patológicos personales e historia familiar, mediciones de la presión arterial y bioquímicas, entre otras. Vulnerabilidad a COVID-19 severa se construyó según propuesta del CDC de Atlanta, EE. UU y fue la variable dependiente. Resultados: La prevalencia de adultos vulnerables a COVID-19 severa en el país fue de 68,3 %, riesgo superior en el adulto mayor (86,5 %), en los no blancos y en la percepción de condiciones de vida “malas”. En adultos mayores ser hombre protege, en tanto, fue riesgo, vivir en la región oriental del país. La hipertensión arterial (39,4 %), seguida del tabaquismo (22,2 %), la obesidad (16,6 %) y las enfermedades respiratorias crónicas (10,6 %) fueron las afecciones médicas más frecuentes. Conclusiones: La vulnerabilidad a la COVID-19 severa en la población adulta cubana es elevada, consecuentemente, constituye un serio problema de salud. Factores no modificables se asocian positivamente a la vulnerabilidad: ser adulto mayor, mujer, color de piel no blanca y padecer hipertensión arterial, en tanto, las “malas” condiciones de vida es el único que puede ser modificado.

ABSTRACT Introduction: In Cuba, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is the sixth leading cause of death. There is insufficient knowledge concerning its scope. Objective: To determine the prevalence and characteristics of the disease in Havana (2017-2018). Methods: A multicenter, cross-sectional study coordinated by Iniciative Burden of Lung Disease. It included 349 non-hospitalized people aged 40 and over from four family doctor´s offices (random selection). A questionnaire with sociodemographic variables on previous medical diagnosis and smoking was applied. A spirometric study was conducted before and after salbutamol administration to determine airflow limitations, and the disease was classified as mild, moderate, severe, and very severe. Results: Overall prevalence was 20.9% (95 % CI: 16.6-25.2); with males accounting for 25.3%; and females for 17.7%. It increased with age. Mild forms of the disease affected 60% of the population; they were more common in females (67%) than in males (severe forms, 22%). Previous spirometry was performed in 15% of respondents. Fourteen people (19.1%) had previously been diagnosed with pulmonary emphysema, chronic bronchitis, or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Smoking prevalence was 36%, with a higher percentage in the severe forms of the disease. One-third (31.7%) were exposed to second-hand tobacco smoke at home or at work, with a daily average exposure of 5 hours. Conclusions: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is a major health problem in Havana due to its high prevalence and underdiagnosis. An increase in prevalence is predicted given the demographic dynamics in the country and the high level of tobacco consumption among the population. Therefore, more comprehensive management of this preventable disease is required.

RESUMEN Introducción: En Cuba la enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crónica es sexta causa de mortalidad general. Existe insuficiente conocimiento sobre su magnitud. Objetivo: Determinar la prevalencia y características de la enfermedad en La Habana (2017-2018). Métodos: Estudio multicéntrico transversal, coordinado por Iniciative Burden of Lung Disease, incluyó 349 personas no institucionalizadas de 40 años y más de cuatro consultorios médicos (selección aleatoria). Se aplicó cuestionario con variables sociodemográficas relacionadas con diagnóstico médico previo y tabaquismo. Se realizó estudio de espirometría, pre-pos aplicación de salbutamol para determinar limitación del flujo aéreo y clasificó severidad de la enfermedad en leve, moderada, severa y muy severa. Resultados: Prevalencia global 20,9 % (IC 95 %:16,6-25,2); en hombres 25,3 %, en mujeres 17,7 %. Se incrementó con la edad. Formas leves 60 %, más frecuentes en mujeres 67 % vs. severas en hombres, 22 %. Espirometría previa 15 % de encuestados. Catorce encuestados (19,1 %) tenían el diagnóstico médico previo de enfisema pulmonar, bronquitis crónica o enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crónica. Prevalencia de tabaquismo 36,0 %, mayor porcentaje en formas severas. La tercera parte (31,7 %), expuestos al humo de tabaco ajeno, en hogar o trabajo; media de exposición diaria 5 h. Conclusiones: La alta prevalencia y subdiagnóstico de enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crónica la convierten en un importante problema de salud en La Habana. Se pronostica incremento de la prevalencia relacionado con la dinámica poblacional en el país y el alto consumo de tabaco en la población. Se requiere un manejo más integral de esta enfermedad prevenible.

ABSTRACT Introduction: Hypertension could be a key element for the prevention of cardiovascular diseases, since it constitutes its main common denominator. It is the main risk factor for the global burden of morbidity and mortality. Objective: To characterize the prevalence of arterial hypertension in Cuba in 2019. Methods: An ecological study was carried out. The prevalence rates of arterial hypertension in the national surveys of risk factors in the years 1995, 2001 and 2010 were compared to those of the dispensarization carried out in those years. The total prevalence rates of arterial hypertension were taken into account by age groups and sex, considering also those of each province and of the special municipality of Isla de la Juventud. The data was processed automatically. The results were expressed in a table and in graphs. Results: The prevalence rates of arterial hypertension found in the national surveys of risk factors exceeded those of dispensarization in those years. The prevalence of hypertension increased with age. In the age group 60-64 years, more than 75% of people were hypertensive. In those aged 25-59, 65 and over, as well as in the total, hypertensive women predominated. Conclusions: It is necessary to reduce, within the health system, the gap between patients known as hypertensive and those who really are carriers of the disease, to achieve proper management of this and, thus, to have a favorable influence on morbidity and mortality from vascular diseases.

RESUMEN Introducción: La hipertensión arterial pudiera ser un elemento clave para la prevención de las enfermedades cardiovasculares, pues constituye su principal denominador común. Es el principal factor de riesgo, para la carga mundial de morbilidad y mortalidad. Objetivo: Caracterizar la prevalencia de hipertensión arterial en Cuba en el año 2019. Métodos: Se realizó un estudio ecológico. Se compararon las prevalencias de hipertensión arterial en las encuestas nacionales de factores de riesgo en los años 1995, 2001 y 2010 respecto a las de la dispensarización de esos años. Se tuvieron en cuenta las prevalencias totales de hipertensión arterial por grupos de edad y sexo, las de cada provincia y del municipio especial Isla de la Juventud. Los datos se procesaron de forma automatizada. Los resultados se expresaron en una tabla y gráficos. Resultados: Las prevalencias de hipertensión arterial encontradas en las encuestas nacionales de factores de riesgo superaron a las de la dispensarización en esos años. La prevalencia de hipertensión arterial se incrementó en la medida que lo hizo la edad. En el grupo de edad de 60 a 64 años, más del 75 % de las personas resultaron hipertensas. En los de 25 a 59, de 65 y más y en el total predominaron las mujeres hipertensas. Conclusiones: Es preciso reducir la brecha entre los pacientes conocidos como hipertensos, dentro del sistema de salud y los que realmente son portadores de la enfermedad, conseguir el manejo adecuado de esta y con eso influir favorablemente en la morbilidad y mortalidad por enfermedades vasculares.

ABSTRACT Introduction: High blood pressure was the main factor associated with premature mortality, causing almost 10 million deaths and more than 200 million disability-adjusted life years in the world, also being the factor that causes the majority of deaths due to cardiovascular causes. It is a silent disease that rarely causes symptoms in early stages of the disease. It is usually not diagnosed promptly. Objective: To characterize the prevalence and mortality due to arterial hypertension in Cuba in the decade 2009-2018. Material and methods: An ecological study was carried out on arterial hypertension in Cuba. Dispensarization, gross mortality rates due to diseases of the circulatory system, heart diseases and hypertensive diseases were taken into account in the decade 2009-2018. The source of information was made up by the statistical yearbooks corresponding to those years published by the National Directorate of Statistics of the Ministry of Public Health. Results: The total prevalence of arterial hypertension in Cuba presented a slight increase in the decade. It was more frequent in the female sex. Mortality rates from hypertensive diseases exhibited an increasing trend. Conclusions: The prevalence rates of arterial hypertension reported in Cuba in the first level of health care were in the intermediate range between the world figures and the region of the Americas. In the decade, its general prevalence showed a slight increase, while mortality from hypertensive diseases almost doubled, which suggests the need to optimize the active screening for arterial hypertension.

RESUMEN Introducción: la presión arterial elevada, fue el principal factor asociado con mortalidad prematura, tras causar casi 10 millones de muertes y más de 200 millones de años de vida ajustados por discapacidad en el mundo y el que más muertes, de causa cardiovascular, origina. Es una enfermedad silenciosa, raramente causa síntomas en las primeras etapas, por lo general, no se diagnostica oportunamente. Objetivo: caracterizar la prevalencia y mortalidad por hipertensión arterial en Cuba, en el decenio 2009- 2018. Material y métodos: se realizó un estudio ecológico, sobre la hipertensión arterial en Cuba. Se tuvieron en cuenta, la dispensarización, las tasas de mortalidad brutas por las enfermedades del sistema circulatorio, del corazón y las hipertensivas en el decenio 2009- 2018. Los anuarios estadísticos publicados por la Dirección Nacional de Estadísticas, del Ministerio de Salud Pública de esos años fueron la fuente de información. Resultados: la prevalencia total de la hipertensión arterial en Cuba presentó un ligero aumento en el decenio. Fue más frecuente en las personas del sexo femenino. Las tasas de mortalidad por enfermedades hipertensivas exhibieron una tendencia al incremento. Conclusiones: las tasas de prevalencia de hipertensión arterial reportadas en Cuba en el primer nivel de atención de salud estuvieron en el rango intermedio entre las cifras mundiales y la región de las Américas. En el decenio su prevalencia general mostró un ligero incremento, en tanto que la mortalidad por enfermedades hipertensivas casi se duplicó, lo que sugiere la necesidad de optimizar la pesquisa activa de hipertensión arterial.

ABSTRACT Background: a third of the total deaths that occur in the world, due to non-transmissible diseases, are due to cardiovascular diseases. They constitute the first cause of death worldwide and in Cuba. Objective: to characterize the mortality from cardiovascular diseases in Cuba that occurred in the period 2009-2018. Methods: an ecological study was carried out. Statistical yearbooks published by the Cuban Ministry of Public Health and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) were used. Mortality rates from heart diseases and their behavior by provinces were considered, as well as mortality rates from diseases of the circulatory system and their distribution by age group. The rates used were gross. Results: in Cuba, diseases of the circulatory system provide a mortality rate between 299.4 and 360.0 per 100 000 inhabitants with a tendency to increase. Mortality rates for diseases of the heart and arteries, arterioles, and capillaries, from 2009 to 2018, were higher in men. Regarding stroke diseases, they exceeded in women, except in the years 2014, 2016-2018. In 2013 and 2015 they were very similar for both sexes. Within cardiovascular diseases, heart diseases contributed more potentially lost years of life, supported by stroke diseases and to a lesser extent those of arteries, arterioles and capillaries. Conclusions: cardiovascular diseases continue to be a serious health problem, which is why it is necessary to act on the causes that cause them, gaining in the perception of cardiovascular risk and in the responsibility, of each person, in the self-care of the health.

RESUMEN Fundamento: un tercio del total de muertes que ocurren en el mundo, por enfermedades no transmisibles, se deben a las enfermedades cardiovasculares que constituyen la primera causa de muerte a nivel mundial y en Cuba. Objetivo: caracterizar la mortalidad por enfermedades cardiovasculares en Cuba ocurridas en el período 2009-2018. Métodos: se realizó un estudio ecológico. Se utilizaron los anuarios estadísticos, publicados por el Ministerio de Salud Pública de Cuba y la Clasificación Internacional de Enfermedades (CIE-10). Se consideraron las tasas de mortalidad por enfermedades del corazón y su comportamiento por provincias, así como, las tasas de mortalidad por enfermedades del sistema circulatorio y su distribución por grupo de edades. Las tasas usadas fueron las brutas. Resultados: en Cuba las enfermedades del sistema circulatorio aportan una tasa de mortalidad entre 299,4 y 360,0 por 100 000 habitantes con tendencia al incremento. Las tasas de mortalidad para las enfermedades del corazón y de las arterias, arteriolas y vasos capilares, desde el año 2009 hasta el 2018, fueron superiores en los hombres. En cuanto a las enfermedades cerebrovasculares excedieron en las mujeres, excepto en los años 2014, 2016-2018. En el año 2013 y 2015 fueron muy similares para ambos sexos. Dentro de las enfermedades cardiovasculares las del corazón aportaron más años de vida perdidos, secundadas por las cerebrovasculares y en menor magnitud las de las arterias, arteriolas y vasos capilares. Conclusiones: las enfermedades cardiovasculares son un grave problema de salud por lo cual se hace necesario accionar sobre las causas que las originan, para ganar en la percepción de riesgo cardiovascular, en la responsabilidad de cada persona y en el auto cuidado de la salud.

ABSTRACT Introduction: Havana has been declared the COVID-19 pandemic epicenter in Cuba, but its specific features are not known. Objective: Examine the epidemiological characteristics of COVID-19 in Havana. Methods: An observational descriptive epidemiological study was conducted of all the COVID-19 cases confirmed in Havana from 17 March to 30 June 2020. Data were obtained from the epidemiological study of each positive case. Statistical analysis was based on the statistical package R, version 4.0.1, whereas the free software QGIS 3.0 was used for spatial analysis. Results: The epidemic peak was reached with 64 cases and institutional outbreaks 30 days after the start of the epidemic. Variability was found between the incidence values for the different municipalities, and a favorable transit was observed of the incidence of the disease and the number of recoveries and deaths as of 45 days of the pandemic. Clinical stages of the disease vary with age and the municipality of residence. Risk of death is proportional to age. Nurses and women are more vulnerable to contagion. Conclusions: Maximum increase in the number of cases on a population level and institutional outbreaks are important elements in the dynamic of an epidemic. Incidence and mortality differ between municipalities. The clinical stages of the disease are influenced by age and comorbidities. The nursing personnel are at greater risk of becoming ill. A national contingency plan and the political will of the state are strengths in the successful combat against the pandemic. It is necessary to gain further insight into the epidemiology of the disease and the impact of the health strategies implemented.

RESUMEN Introducción: En Cuba, La Habana es declarada el epicentro de la pandemia y se desconocen sus particularidades. Objetivo: Examinar las características epidemiológicas de la COVID-19 en La Habana. Métodos: Estudio epidemiológico observacional descriptivo de todos los casos con COVID-19 confirmados entre el 17 de marzo-30 de junio de 2020 en La Habana. Información procedente de la investigación epidemiológica realizada a cada caso positivo. Análisis estadístico realizado con el paquete estadístico R versión 4.0.1 y el análisis espacial con el software libre QGIS 3.0. Resultados: El pico epidémico se alcanzó con 64 casos y brotes institucionales pasados 30 días del inicio de la epidemia. Existió variabilidad de las incidencias entre los municipios y un tránsito favorable de la incidencia, recuperados y fallecidos a partir de los 45 días de la pandemia. Los estadios clínicos de la enfermedad difieren respecto a la edad y los municipios de procedencia. El mayor riesgo de morir es proporcional a la edad. Los enfermeros y las mujeres son más vulnerables al contagio. Conclusiones: El máximo aumento de casos a nivel poblacional y los brotes institucionales son importantes en la dinámica de una epidemia. La incidencia y la mortalidad difieren entre los municipios. Los estadios clínicos de la enfermedad están influidos por la edad y las comorbilidades. El personal de enfermería es frecuentemente enfermado. Tener un plan nacional para el enfrentamiento de esta contingencia junto a la voluntad política del estado es una fortaleza en la evolución satisfactoria de la pandemia. Profundizar en la epidemiología e impactos de las estrategias salubristas es necesario.

ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Cirrhosis of the liver is a chronic disease that is widespread and irreversible. It represents the final stage of numerous diseases that affect the liver. By the end of 2017, it was the 11th most common cause of death, with a loss of 41.4 million years of disability-adjusted life years, which represent 2.1% of the total years of life lost in the global mortality burden. In Cuba, cirrhosis and other chronic liver diseases have been among the top 10 causes of death for several decades, their rates consistently increasing, from 576 deaths in 1970 (6.7 per 100,000 population) to 1738 in 2017 (15.5 per 100,000 population), with a risk of death that is 4.6 times higher in men. OBJECTIVE Characterize deaths from cirrhosis of the liver in Cuba from 1987 to 2017. METHODS An ecological time-series study was conducted for 1987 to 2017 using information obtained from the mortality database of the Medical Records and Health Statistics Bureau of Cuba’s Ministry of Public Health. The study universe consisted of all deceased persons in the country whose underlying cause of death was cirrhosis of the liver. Both general mortality rates and specific mortality were calculated by age group, sex and etiological classification using adjusted and crude rates. Rates were age-adjusted using the direct method, and the population from the 2002 Census of Population and Housing was considered as the standard population. Percentages and means were also calculated according to selected variables and the relative risk of death due to the disease according to sex, age group and etiological classification. The trend and forecast for mortality rates were estimated for this disease. RESULTS The crude mortality rate from cirrhosis of the liver was 9.0 per 100,000 population for the period. Those aged ≥75 years had the highest risk of death (48.3 per 100,000 population). The crude and adjusted mortality rates were almost double for men (12.4 vs. 5.6 and 11.7 vs. 5.6 per 100,000 population, respectively), as was the total relative risk of death, which was 2.2 times higher. Nonalcoholic cirrhosis accounted for 71.6% of deaths. By the end of 2017, risk of death from cirrhosis had climbed to 14.8 per 100,000 population (adjusted rate: 10.6 per 100,000 population), a signal that mortality had progressively increased over the 31 years analyzed. In addition, forecasts predict that death rates will continue their gradual increase, reaching 19.2 per 100,000 population in 2025. CONCLUSIONS Deaths from cirrhosis of the liver constitute a substantial health burden in Cuba. The upward trend and forecast, in addition to increased risk of mortality in men and older adults, are similar to those reported internationally. The finding that most of these deaths result from nonalcoholic cirrhosis should be further studied, as formulation of effective public health strategies depends largely on attaining a better understanding of the etiology, progression and social determinants of the disease.

Abstract: Background: The prevalence of asthma and allergic diseases in Cuban children is high, but little is known about adverse reactions to foods. Objective: To determine the prevalence, incidence and risk factors for adverse reaction to foods in children. Methods: Population-based cohort study carried out in Havana, Cuba, in a three-year period. Parents of 1543 children provided medical and lifestyle information from the first to the third year of age, which was collected using a questionnaire. An adverse reaction to foods was defined by medical diagnosis reported by the parents or caregivers. Results: Annual cumulative incidence was 5.7%, 1.9% and 0.8%, whereas annual prevalence was 5.7%, 4% and 2.5% at 1, 2 and 3 years of age, respectively; 8% of infants had experienced an adverse reaction to foods when they turned 3 years of age. Cow milk was the most commonly implicated food. Main risk factors were allergenic food consumption, use of antibiotics, factors related to the presence of allergens, maternal history of overweight during pregnancy and allergy to insect bites. Conclusions: Adverse reaction to food is a significant clinical problem in children from Havana. Modifiable risk factors were identified, the understanding of which will help to direct effective intervention strategies.

Resumen: Antecedentes: Aunque la prevalencia del asma y enfermedades alérgicas en niños cubanos es alta, se conoce poco de las reacciones adversas a alimentos. Objetivo: Determinar prevalencia, incidencia y factores de riesgo para reacciones adversas a alimentos en niños. Métodos: Estudio de cohorte de base poblacional de La Habana, Cuba, en un periodo de tres años. Los padres de 1543 niños proveyeron datos médicos y de estilos de vida del primer al tercer año de edad, colectados con un cuestionario. La reacción adversa a alimentos fue definida por diagnóstico médico reportado por los padres o cuidadores. Resultados: La incidencia acumulada anual fue 5.7, 1.9 y 0.8 % y la prevalencia anual de 5.7, 4 y 2.5 % al uno, dos y tres años, respectivamente; 8 % de los infantes a los tres años tuvo una reacción adversa a alimentos. La leche de vaca fue el alimento más implicado. Los principales factores de riesgo fueron consumo de alimentos alergénicos, uso de antibióticos, factores relacionados con la presencia de alérgenos, historia materna de sobrepeso durante el embarazo y alergia a picaduras de insectos. Conclusiones: La reacción adversa al alimento es un problema significativo en los niños de La Habana. Se identificaron factores de riesgo modificables, cuya comprensión puede dirigir las intervenciones.

ABSTRACT Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) represent one of the greatest challenges for development of the 21st century due to their devastating social, economic and public health impact. The objective of this article are to describe the evolution and risk factors for NCDs in Cuba, mainly in the period 1990–2015, to outline actions undertaken by the Ministry of Public Health of Cuba, and to highlight the most important challenges with a focus on their prevention and control. The information is based on data collected and published by the Directorate of Medical Records and Health Statistics, research on risk factors, other studies and documentation of comprehensive actions. Mortality in Cuba is determined by four major health problems: cardiovascular diseases, malignant tumors, chronic diseases of the lower respiratory tract and diabetes mellitus, which together cause 68.0% of deaths. Cancer presents a growing trend, and chronic kidney disease emerges as a serious health problem. Cuba has a known baseline on risk factors, and hypertension and tobacco consumption are the main factors related to NCDs mortality. In line with the importance of these diseases, there are milestones and interventions with a positive impact, as well as gaps and challenges within the framework of the World Health Organization’s Global Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of NCDs.

RESUMEN Las enfermedades no transmisibles (ENT) representan uno de los mayores desafíos para el desarrollo en el siglo XXI, debido al devastador impacto social, económico y de la salud pública que provocan. El propósito de este artículo es describir la evolución y los factores de riesgo de las ENT en Cuba, principalmente en el período 1990–2015, reseñar las acciones emprendidas por el Ministerio de Salud Pública y destacar los desafíos más importantes para su prevención y control. La información contenida proviene de los datos colectados y publicados por la Dirección de Registros Médicos y Estadísticas de Salud, investigaciones sobre los factores de riesgo, otros estudios fundamentados y la documentación de acciones integrales. La mortalidad en Cuba está determinada por cuatro grandes problemas de salud: enfermedades cardiovasculares, tumores malignos, enfermedades crónicas de las vías respiratorias inferiores y diabetes mellitus, que en conjunto causan el 68,0% de los fallecimientos. La tendencia del cáncer es al ascenso y la enfermedad renal crónica emerge como un grave problema de salud. Cuba cuenta con una línea de base conocida sobre los factores de riesgo, de ellos la hipertensión y el consumo de tabaco son los principales relacionados con la mortalidad por ENT. En consonancia con la importancia de estas enfermedades se aprecian hitos e intervenciones de impacto positivo, así como brechas y desafíos en el marco del Plan de Acción Mundial de la Organización Mundial de la Salud para el enfrentamiento a las ENT.

RESUMO As doenças não transmissíveis (DNT) representam um dos maiores desafios do século 21 para o desenvolvimento devido ao desvastador impacto social, econômico e de saúde pública que elas causam. O objetivo deste artigo é descrever a evolução e os fatores de risco das doenças não transmissíveis em Cuba, principalmente no período de 1990–2015, para delinear as ações realizadas pelo Ministério da Saúde Pública de Cuba e destacar os desafios mais importantes para sua prevenção e controle. A informação vem dos dados coletados e publicados pela Diretoria de Registros Médicos e Estatísticas de Saúde, pesquisa sobre fatores de risco, outros estudos fundamentados e documentação de ações abrangentes. A mortalidade em Cuba é determinada por quatro principais problemas de saúde: doenças cardiovasculares, tumores malignos, doenças crônicas do trato respiratório inferior e diabetes mellitus, que em conjunto causam 68,0% das mortes. O câncer tem uma tendência crescente, e a doença renal crônica surge como um grave problema de saúde. Cuba tem uma linha de base conhecida sobre os fatores de risco, dos quais a hipertensão e o consumo de tabaco são os principais relacionados à mortalidade por DNT. Em consonância com a importância dessas doenças, há marcos e intervenções com impacto positivo, bem como lacunas e desafios no âmbito do Plano de Ação Mundial da Organização Mundial da Saúde para enfrentar as doenças não transmissíveis.

ABSTRACT WHO considers the effects of air pollution one of the most pressing global health priorities. Several years ago, scientists began noting a link between Saharan dust (a meteorological phenomenon that diminishes air quality as it spreads over the globe) and some diseases, but the few studies to date have been inconsistent. Cuba has the human and material resources to study the association between Saharan dust and health. It is important to encourage creation of multidisciplinary research teams to do so.